Egypt - The Gift of the Nile

The Greek writer Herodotus called Egypt “the Gift of the Nile,” and so it was. The Nile is a long, powerful river running in a northerly direction some 750 miles from the last cataract to the Mediterranean.
It floods—annually and predictably—an area five to 15 miles wide. About five percent of Egypt is habitable. Without the Nile, there would be only barren desert. From as early as 5000 B.C., small communities along the Nile began to drain marshes, irrigate, and plant regular crops (mainly cereal grains).

Slowly, these communities coalesced into nomes (the word is Greek; we do not know what word the Egyptians used) under nomarchs. Then the nomes of the south—“Upper Egypt” because it is nearer the source of the Nile—and the north—“Lower Egypt,” nearer the mouth of the Nile—formed as larger entities. It seems that a need to control irrigation led to political organization on a larger scale. Much about this period is shrouded in legend, but about 3100 B.C., Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt. This unification ushered in the historical period.

Historians divide Egypt’s historical period into 30-some dynasties, or families, of rulers. The dynasties
are grouped into the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms, with intermediate periods in between. 

The Old Kingdom (2695–2160 B.C.) was an era of great vitality, security, and prosperity. Egypt was isolated and untroubled by invaders. A distinctive Egyptian kingship evolved. The word pharaoh comes from per aa, meaning the “Great House.” Pharaoh was one of the gods and guaranteed Egypt’s prosperity and security. In turn, Egypt’s prosperity and security legitimized the pharaoh. The Great Pyramids at Gizeh symbolize the Old Kingdom.

The Middle Kingdom (2025–1786 B.C.) was a period of more widely dispersed rule. Pharaohs shared power with local notables. This period was important in the elaboration of Egyptian religion because the emphasis moved beyond the royal dynasty to nobles and even ordinary people.

Around 1700 B.C., the Hyksos, Semitic-speaking peoples from Palestine, conquered Egypt. Hatred for foreign rule eventually led a dynasty from Upper Egypt to drive out the Hyksos and inaugurate the New Kingdom (1550–1075 B.C.). Fired by ambition and a desire to ward off future conquest, the Egyptians now built an empire that extended into Mesopotamia and along the shore of the eastern Mediterranean. This was a brilliant and cosmopolitan period. After about 1400 B.C., the Egyptians confronted the Hittites, a powerful and expanding people from Anatolia and the first Indo-European speakers in recorded history. In 1274, at Qadesh in northern Syria, the Egyptians and Hittites fought a battle that left them both crippled and declining.

Religion

Everything starts with the pharaoh in a two-class society (the pharaoh and everybody else). Egypt first displayed an abstract sense of rule—the separation of ruler and office and the complete removal of the ruler from the ordinary realm of humans.

Religion grew more complicated over time. The peace and prosperity of the Old Kingdom led to a happy, optimistic outlook. The concept of the afterlife—as a continuation of this life, not something better!—was reserved mainly to the pharaoh, his family, and perhaps a few key advisers. The Middle Kingdom saw a profusion of temples and new cults. Herodotus called the Egyptian the “most religious of all people.” This might have been a reemergence of predynastic religion or a response to unsettled conditions. At this time, the afterlife seems to have been considered available to all. The New Kingdom
saw the remarkable religious experiment of Akhenaton. He abandoned traditional worship to promote the cult of Aton (henotheism or monolatry), but this died with him.

Myths

The concept of Ma’at became crucial, that is, the idea of truth, justice, balance, and order.  The myth of Osiris revealing the Middle Kingdom was popular.

Science & Writing

Scientific and artisanal advances were striking. The use of papyrus facilitated writing and record-keeping. Hieroglyphic (= pictographic) writing gave way gradually to demotic, which was more efficient than cuneiform. The desire to preserve bodies intact (mummification) for the afterlife led to advances in medical science, including surgery and knowledge of anatomy.

Legacy

Greeks and Romans were impressed, even dazzled, by the Egyptians, as have been most visitors to Egypt since antiquity. Seeing just what influence Egypt actually had, however, is not so easy. Political control lasted a short time. Divinized kingship recurred but not necessarily because of the Egyptians.
No new literary forms were added. Monumental architecture as propaganda recurred, but this idea is not “Egyptian.”

Early Egyptologists were eager to claim the ancient Egyptians for the West. After World War II, as colonial empires crumbled and black consciousness arose, some people claimed that Egypt was an African civilization, indeed, that Egypt was Africa and vice versa. In its most extreme forms, this view has held that Western civilization was stolen from the Egyptians by the Greeks. This view again puts a sharp focus on Egypt but without solid reasons for doing so. Perhaps these historical mysteries explain the mysterious smile of the Sphinx.


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osiris_myth